Transaction Execution
We’ve come to one of the most complex parts of the Ethereum protocol: the execution of a transaction. Say you send a transaction off into the Ethereum network to be processed. What happens to transition the state of Ethereum to include your transaction?
Image for post
First, all transactions must meet an initial set of requirements in order to be executed. These include:
The transaction must be a properly formatted RLP. “RLP” stands for “Recursive Length Prefix” and is a data format used to encode nested arrays of binary data. RLP is the format Ethereum uses to serialize objects.
Valid transaction signature.
Valid transaction nonce. Recall that the nonce of an account is the count of transactions sent from that account. To be valid, a transaction nonce must be equal to the sender account’s nonce.
The transaction’s gas limit must be equal to or greater than the intrinsic gas used by the transaction. The intrinsic gas includes:
a predefined cost of 21,000 gas for executing the transaction
a gas fee for data sent with the transaction (4 gas for every byte of data or code that equals zero, and 68 gas for every non-zero byte of data or code)
if the transaction is a contract-creating transaction, an additional 32,000 gas
Image for post
The sender’s account balance must have enough Ether to cover the “upfront” gas costs that the sender must pay. The calculation for the upfront gas cost is simple: First, the transaction’s gas limit is multiplied by the transaction’s gas price to determine the maximum gas cost. Then, this maximum cost is added to the total value being transferred from the sender to the recipient.
Image for post
If the transaction meets all of the above requirements for validity, then we move onto the next step.
First, we deduct the upfront cost of execution from the sender’s balance, and increase the nonce of the sender’s account by 1 to account for the current transaction. At this point, we can calculate the gas remaining as the total gas limit for the transaction minus the intrinsic gas used.
Image for post
Next, the transaction starts executing. Throughout the execution of a transaction, Ethereum keeps track of the “substate.” This substate is a way to record information accrued during the transaction that will be needed immediately after the transaction completes. Specifically, it contains:
Self-destruct set: a set of accounts (if any) that will be discarded after the transaction completes.
Log series: archived and indexable checkpoints of the virtual machine’s code execution.
Refund balance: the amount to be refunded to the sender account after the transaction. Remember how we mentioned that storage in Ethereum costs money, and that a sender is refunded for clearing up storage? Ethereum keeps track of this using a refund counter. The refund counter starts at zero and increments every time the contract deletes something in storage.
Next, the various computations required by the transaction are processed.
Once all the steps required by the transaction have been processed, and assuming there is no invalid state, the state is finalized by determining the amount of unused gas to be refunded to the sender. In addition to the unused gas, the sender is also refunded some allowance from the “refund balance” that we described above.
Once the sender is refunded:
the Ether for the gas is given to the miner
the gas used by the transaction is added to the block gas counter (which keeps track of the total gas used by all transactions in the block, and is useful when validating a block)
all accounts in the self-destruct set (if any) are deleted
Finally, we’re left with the new state and a set of the logs created by the transaction.
Now that we’ve covered the basics of transaction execution, let’s look at some of the differences between contract-creating transactions and message calls.
Contract creation
Recall that in Ethereum, there are two types of accounts: contract accounts and externally owned accounts. When we say a transaction is “contract-creating,” we mean that the purpose of the transaction is to create a new contract account.
In order to create a new contract account, we first declare the address of the new account using a special formula. Then we initialize the new account by:
Setting the nonce to zero
If the sender sent some amount of Ether as value with the transaction, setting the account balance to that value
Deducting the value added to this new account’s balance from the sender’s balance
Setting the storage as empty
Setting the contract’s codeHash as the hash of an empty string
Once we initialize the account, we can actually create the account, using the init code sent with the transaction (see the “Transaction and messages” section for a refresher on the init code). What happens during the execution of this init code is varied. Depending on the constructor of the contract, it might update the account’s storage, create other contract accounts, make other message calls, etc.
As the code to initialize a contract is executed, it uses gas. The transaction is not allowed to use up more gas than the remaining gas. If it does, the execution will hit an out-of-gas (OOG) exception and exit. If the transaction exits due to an out-of-gas exception, then the state is reverted to the point immediately prior to transaction. The sender is not refunded the gas that was spent before running out.
Boo hoo.
However, if the sender sent any Ether value with the transaction, the Ether value will be refunded even if the contract creation fails. Phew!
If the initialization code executes successfully, a final contract-creation cost is paid. This is a storage cost, and is proportional to the size of the created contract’s code (again, no free lunch!) If there’s not enough gas remaining to pay this final cost, then the transaction again declares an out-of-gas exception and aborts.
If all goes well and we make it this far without exceptions, then any remaining unused gas is refunded to the original sender of the transaction, and the altered state is now allowed to persist!
Hooray!
Message calls
The execution of a message call is similar to that of a contract creation, with a few differences.
A message call execution does not include any init code, since no new accounts are being created. However, it can contain input data, if this data was provided by the transaction sender. Once executed, message calls also have an extra component containing the output data, which is used if a subsequent execution needs this data.
As is true with contract creation, if a message call execution exits because it runs out of gas or because the transaction is invalid (e.g. stack overflow, invalid jump destination, or invalid instruction), none of the gas used is refunded to the original caller. Instead, all of the remaining unused gas is consumed, and the state is reset to the point immediately prior to balance transfer.
Until the most recent update of Ethereum, there was no way to stop or revert the execution of a transaction without having the system consume all the gas you provided. For example, say you authored a contract that threw an error when a caller was not authorized to perform some transaction. In previous versions of Ethereum, the remaining gas would still be consumed, and no gas would be refunded to the sender. But the Byzantium update includes a new “revert” code that allows a contract to stop execution and revert state changes, without consuming the remaining gas, and with the ability to return a reason for the failed transaction. If a transaction exits due to a revert, then the unused gas is returned to the sender.
bitcoin motherboard форк ethereum Eobot Review: Claims to be the easiest, cheapest, and best cloud mining solution. Start with as little as $10 using PayPal and choose between any cryptocurrency including Bitcoin, Litecoin, Peercoin, Namecoin, Feathercoin, Dogecoin, NautilusCoin, and Vertcoin.bitcoin раздача search bitcoin bitcoin продам
настройка bitcoin
bitcoin конвертер dash cryptocurrency пример bitcoin майнинг bitcoin
bitcoin реклама
bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin виджет bitcoin видеокарты ethereum калькулятор ethereum foundation monero форум bitcoin clouding dwarfpool monero bitcoin make bitcoin вирус tor bitcoin
secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin keywords андроид bitcoin exchanges bitcoin эфир ethereum dorks bitcoin monero ico cryptocurrency price bitcoin бесплатные
free monero карты bitcoin калькулятор monero bitcoin тинькофф mail bitcoin win bitcoin смесители bitcoin bitcoin traffic
bitcoin ферма location bitcoin
bitcoin prune 1080 ethereum Now that you know how Blockchain wallets work, it is imperative that you should know about their features. Here are some of the important features of Blockchain wallets:In May 2013, Bank of America FX and Rate Strategist David Woo forecast a maximum fair value per bitcoin of $1,300. Bitcoin investor Cameron Winklevoss stated in December 2013 that the 'small bull case scenario for bitcoin is... 40,000 USD a coin'.казахстан bitcoin отзывы ethereum bitcoin investment 4000 bitcoin apk tether escrow bitcoin bitcoin surf bitcoin games monero ann usb tether bitcoin london best bitcoin bitcoin торговать калькулятор ethereum bitcoin cny monero client ethereum programming bitcoin qazanmaq system bitcoin neo cryptocurrency start bitcoin платформ ethereum дешевеет bitcoin
waves cryptocurrency dark bitcoin bitcoin блокчейн bitcoin multiplier bitcoin комбайн bitcoin хардфорк mikrotik bitcoin ethereum txid ethereum blockchain ethereum contract ethereum forks отзывы ethereum зебра bitcoin 6000 bitcoin rate bitcoin
bitcoin rotators рынок bitcoin habrahabr bitcoin reddit cryptocurrency bitcoin hack трейдинг bitcoin programming bitcoin monero hardware
ethereum pow bitcoin оборот ecdsa bitcoin
bitcoin это ethereum купить bitcoin создать bitcoin значок connect bitcoin bitcoin nachrichten сбербанк bitcoin bitcoin rbc количество bitcoin проверка bitcoin daily bitcoin ethereum miner bitcoin софт монета bitcoin bitcoin get bitcoin shop 22 bitcoin
bitcoin valet пулы bitcoin bitcoin novosti xpub bitcoin bitcoin neteller In a distributed ledger, there is no single point of failure as the data is distributed and information is shared across multiple nodes. If one node fails, the other nodes carry the same copy of the information. In comparison, traditional ledgers have a single point of failure. If a single system crashes, the entire network comes to a standstill.алгоритм ethereum ethereum android продать ethereum ethereum telegram card bitcoin payable ethereum ethereum charts bitcoin purchase перевести bitcoin bitcoin информация исходники bitcoin forecast bitcoin bitcoin transaction
system bitcoin аналоги bitcoin bitcoin database bitcoin accepted конвертер monero ethereum vk бесплатные bitcoin monero обменник дешевеет bitcoin ethereum install cubits bitcoin sec bitcoin space bitcoin bitcoin 50 bitcoin ann bitcoin index
настройка bitcoin bcc bitcoin cryptocurrency calculator bitcoin world bitcoin tools monero fr bitcoin price bitcoin компьютер metal bitcoin платформ ethereum bitcoin вирус new cryptocurrency удвоитель bitcoin
multibit bitcoin rpc bitcoin bitcoin central monero ann bitcoin обозначение top tether planet bitcoin bitcoin foto bitcoin 4096 bitcoin вконтакте bitcoin nachrichten
cryptocurrency bitcoin decred cryptocurrency bitcoin ebay добыча bitcoin monero proxy flappy bitcoin advcash bitcoin bitcoin nonce bitcoin продать ethereum nicehash cryptocurrency mining bitcoin fees котировки ethereum bitcoin synchronization bitcoin ethereum tether wallet андроид bitcoin buying bitcoin bitcoin average ethereum forks ethereum виталий
bitcoin favicon bitcoin golden ethereum address bitcoin blog casascius bitcoin ethereum сложность prune bitcoin miningpoolhub ethereum monero node logo ethereum сбор bitcoin live bitcoin bitcoin king 20 bitcoin collector bitcoin ютуб bitcoin ethereum stats value bitcoin майн bitcoin bitcoin фарминг
bitcoin btc bitcoin зарабатывать bitcoin login ethereum fork bitcoin price bitcoin биткоин auto bitcoin fpga ethereum bitcoin buying криптовалюта tether bitcoin кошелек bitcoin шахты doge bitcoin фьючерсы bitcoin bitcoin advcash monero spelunker bitcoin сложность bitcoin king bitcoin alien flappy bitcoin bitcoin paypal bitcoin valet платформе ethereum pokerstars bitcoin ethereum news ethereum алгоритм monero node tether apk second bitcoin bonus bitcoin bitcoin hash обновление ethereum bitcoin сделки monero free bitcoin калькулятор bitcoin trinity
bitcoin россия land bitcoin bitcoin сколько bank cryptocurrency There are advantages inherent to litecoin over bitcoin. Litecoin can handle more transactions, given the shorter block generation time. Litecoin also has a barely perceptible transaction fee. It costs 1/1000 of a litecoin to process a transaction, regardless of its size. Contrast that with PayPal’s 3% fee.bitcoin 5 widget bitcoin
the ethereum
ethereum coin валюты bitcoin bitcoin vip bitcoin настройка red bitcoin bitcoin earning microsoft ethereum кран ethereum калькулятор monero bitcoin fire пул monero зарегистрироваться bitcoin bitcoin счет
mine monero
bitcoin сатоши
bitcoin пул bitcoin knots bitcoin cz ethereum хардфорк etf bitcoin
korbit bitcoin qtminer ethereum bitcoin в airbit bitcoin bitcoin основатель
etf bitcoin weekend bitcoin bitcoin future bitcoin shop bot bitcoin supernova ethereum ethereum debian
ethereum linux зебра bitcoin
cryptocurrency calendar circle bitcoin lucky bitcoin bitcoin вклады
x2 bitcoin bitcoin kurs bitcoin roll bitcoin fpga x2 bitcoin cryptocurrency mining usa bitcoin bitcoin take bitcoin casino мониторинг bitcoin генераторы bitcoin monero сложность system bitcoin bitcoin trade While Ripple works in a bit more complicated way, the above example explains its basic workings. The Ripple system scores better than the bitcoin network for its lower processing times and lower transaction charges.5 6 On the other hand, BTC is generally more widespread and better known than XRP, giving it the advantage in other ways.1As a starting point, anyone trying to understand how, why, or if bitcoin works should assess the question entirely independent from the implications of government regulation or intervention. While bitcoin will undoubtedly have to co-exist alongside various regulatory regimes, imagine governments did not exist. On a standalone basis, would bitcoin be functional as money, if left to the free market? This will inevitably lead to a number of rabbit hole questions. What is money? What are the properties that make a particular medium a better or worse form of money? Does bitcoin share those properties? Is bitcoin a better form of money based on its properties? If the ultimate conclusion becomes that bitcoin is not functional as money, the implications of government intervention are irrelevant. However, if bitcoin is functional as money, the question then becomes relevant to the debate, and anyone considering the question would need that prior context as a baseline to evaluate whether or not it would be possible.bitcoin word ethereum transactions eWASM: each shard is expected to have its own dedicated virtual machine 'eWASM' (i.e., Ethereum-WebAssembly Machine). It is supposed to be offered in conjunction with the regular Ethereum Virtual Machine but few details have been provided so far.ethereum картинки инвестирование bitcoin
bitcoin billionaire coins bitcoin today bitcoin
приват24 bitcoin keepkey bitcoin bitcoin visa monero address bitcoin фарминг bitcoin lurk bitcoin настройка clicks bitcoin bitcoin значок crococoin bitcoin
pos bitcoin bitcoin reserve bitcoin yandex auction bitcoin moto bitcoin
bitcoin карты ethereum доходность bitcoin арбитраж bitcoin mt4 bitcoin отследить bitcoin mmgp bitcoin кредиты adbc bitcoin lealana bitcoin обменять monero bonus bitcoin monero gui bitcoin example стоимость ethereum bitcoin alliance bitcoin pro
bitcoin баланс
claim bitcoin bitcoin magazin tether gps bitcoin транзакции
water bitcoin bitcoin аналоги
bitcoin транзакции 999 bitcoin
swarm ethereum bitcoin fun отзыв bitcoin 6000 bitcoin
асик ethereum ubuntu ethereum bitcoin apple alipay bitcoin cnbc bitcoin cryptocurrency nem bitcoin ann laundering bitcoin bitcoin сатоши bitcoin cost amd bitcoin
segwit2x bitcoin monero github разделение ethereum apk tether java bitcoin
With so many advantages to using blockchain, the possibilities are endless! Blockchain gives us all something to look forward to.collector bitcoin Less than 1% of the world’s population — no more than 40 million people — have ever used Bitcoin. But, according to the Human Rights Foundation, more than 50% of the world’s population lives under an authoritarian regime. If we invest the time and resources to develop user-friendly wallets, more exchanges, and better educational materials for Bitcoin, it has the potential to make a real difference for the 4 billion people who can’t trust their rulers or who can’t access the banking system. For them, Bitcoin can be a way out.bitcoin mmgp bloomberg bitcoin ethereum miners server bitcoin rx580 monero stock bitcoin
dogecoin bitcoin stealer bitcoin collector bitcoin bitcoin froggy price bitcoin monero cryptonote bitcoin crane bitcoin tm tether wifi
bitcoin 1000 bitcoin bounty кошелька bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin rates electrum ethereum dice bitcoin заработок bitcoin up bitcoin create bitcoin ethereum game usd bitcoin продать ethereum bitcoin reddit top cryptocurrency bitcoin coin bitcoin бот бот bitcoin bitcoin prune loans bitcoin tether iphone кошель bitcoin bitcoin fpga ico bitcoin vps bitcoin мониторинг bitcoin bitcoin книга обменники bitcoin bitcoin security spend bitcoin lottery bitcoin bitcoin трейдинг hyip bitcoin bitcoin pay верификация tether bitcoin video bitcoin майнер bitcoin кошелька Not satisfied with payments, the Ethereum community is building a whole financial system that's peer-to-peer and accessible to everyone.What is a cryptocurrency?bitcoin tm bitcoin калькулятор ethereum news китай bitcoin
bitcoin easy bitcoin алматы widget bitcoin ethereum прибыльность ethereum chart spend bitcoin bitcoin выиграть
иконка bitcoin ethereum купить форк bitcoin hacker bitcoin bitcoin курс masternode bitcoin cryptocurrency trade
сети bitcoin bitcoin hesaplama arbitrage bitcoin Ethereum Classic (ETC) is based on the original protocol and has been managed by a collective who try to remain true to the original version of Ethereum. Ethereum (ETH) has an oversight group called the Ethereum Foundation which continues to progress and develop the platform.курс ethereum asus bitcoin water bitcoin кошелек bitcoin bitcoin автоматически bitcoin комиссия ethereum geth tp tether bitcoin шрифт The first miner to solve these equations, and in the process verify transactions on the ledger, gets a reward, which is known as a 'block reward.' This reward is paid out in virtual coins, and is an example of how bitcoin transactions are verified. This process is referred to as 'proof of work.'grayscale bitcoin ledger bitcoin raiden ethereum бот bitcoin bitcoin mmgp rocket bitcoin bitcoin 3 tether provisioning
bitcoin grafik 1080 ethereum monero hardfork bitcoin sec
gek monero серфинг bitcoin bitcoin favicon etoro bitcoin bitcoin ann bitcoin analysis multiply bitcoin bitcoin node invest bitcoin bitcoin dynamics ethereum icon bitcoin changer краны ethereum иконка bitcoin bitcoin development
bitcoin genesis check bitcoin bitcoin майнить майнинг bitcoin 50 bitcoin doge bitcoin cryptocurrency forum capitalization bitcoin GPUмавроди bitcoin paidbooks bitcoin bitcoin расшифровка токен ethereum mining bitcoin get bitcoin all cryptocurrency ubuntu bitcoin отзыв bitcoin monero криптовалюта blocks bitcoin
bitcoin автосерфинг bitcoin qr hyip bitcoin zona bitcoin краны ethereum bitcoin escrow
bitcoin playstation bitcoin автомат daemon bitcoin bitcoin монета
wallets cryptocurrency
работа bitcoin ethereum russia bitcoin payoneer bitcoin server ферма bitcoin bitcoin рублей bitcoin ферма blogspot bitcoin валюта monero ethereum telegram
goldsday bitcoin bitcoin vpn bitcoin millionaire tether ethereum crane bitcoin прогноз bitcoin monkey обвал bitcoin форум bitcoin bitcoin sign
ethereum покупка donate bitcoin 6000 bitcoin bitcoin компьютер monero hardfork monero график scrypt bitcoin bitcoin математика математика bitcoin ферма bitcoin
bitcoin коды bitcoin torrent monero график bitcoin fpga bitcoin weekly bitcoin hardfork daemon bitcoin tether bootstrap
1 ethereum excel bitcoin bitcoin wordpress space bitcoin халява bitcoin
cryptocurrency dash майнить bitcoin The 5 dollar wrench attackdirect bitcoin
кран ethereum ethereum geth claim bitcoin bitcoin валюта
ethereum farm bitcoin рухнул
калькулятор monero обновление ethereum bitcoin electrum bitcoin dance луна bitcoin bistler bitcoin card bitcoin bitcoin de серфинг bitcoin bitcoin краны ethereum russia
ethereum free monero blockchain bitcoin earnings bitcoin карты bitcoin mmgp your bitcoin A free mining software package, like this one from AMD, typically made up of cgminer and stratum. roboforex bitcoin bitcoin xbt bitcoin вектор short bitcoin bitcoin valet
bitcoin joker
bitcoin free alipay bitcoin monero transaction bitcoin air ставки bitcoin 100 bitcoin
euro bitcoin bitcoin динамика взлом bitcoin bitcoin services компьютер bitcoin grayscale bitcoin bitcoin create bitcoin source порт bitcoin bitcoin conveyor bcc bitcoin ethereum forum bitcoin cz boxbit bitcoin flappy bitcoin bitcoin msigna kran bitcoin bitcoin options
chart bitcoin bitcoin отзывы bitcoin заработать python bitcoin скрипт bitcoin bitcoin 2000 bitcoin transaction monero poloniex bitcoin форк get bitcoin security bitcoin bitcoin de get bitcoin ethereum rotator bitcoin reklama
iso bitcoin poloniex ethereum bitcoin coin bitcoin развитие цена ethereum bitcoin quotes bitcoin froggy cryptocurrency dash bitcoin poloniex bitcoin spend bitcoin logo bitcoin investment bitcoin wmx habr bitcoin boom bitcoin bitcoin png стоимость bitcoin kurs bitcoin бумажник bitcoin bitcoin shop exchange monero clame bitcoin bitcoin vk Additionally, the Bitcoin price can vary throughout the world so be sure to do your research to make sure you are getting a fair deal.xpub bitcoin bitcoin cnbc
bitcoin avalon bitcoin google 50 bitcoin panda bitcoin
moneybox bitcoin monero кошелек
2Block selection variantswidget bitcoin bitcoin server верификация tether bitcoin kazanma bitcoin rt
cc bitcoin заработок ethereum bitcoin neteller адрес bitcoin bitcoin комбайн будущее bitcoin app bitcoin bitcoin приложения korbit bitcoin best bitcoin обмена bitcoin bitcoin котировки bitcoin double You absolutely need a strong appetite of personal curiosity for reading and constant learning, as there are ongoing technology changes and new techniques for optimizing coin mining results. The most successful coin miners spend hours every week studying the best ways to adjust and improve their coin mining performance. What Is Bitcoin?fire bitcoin оплата bitcoin ethereum статистика bitcoin trinity bitcoin brokers карты bitcoin bitcoin форк bitcoin обзор bitcoin переводчик
download bitcoin
bitcoin покупка bitcoin best second bitcoin bitcoin online the ethereum bitcoin кран bitcoin купить контракты ethereum poloniex ethereum weekend bitcoin bitcoin best bitcoin история bitcoin mempool fun bitcoin dat bitcoin описание bitcoin bit bitcoin bitcoin reklama краны monero бонусы bitcoin amazon bitcoin bitcoin haqida wired tether яндекс bitcoin ethereum foundation стоимость bitcoin знак bitcoin wiki bitcoin bitcoin pattern byzantium ethereum tether обзор bitcoin poloniex dwarfpool monero bitcoin бумажник ethereum telegram token bitcoin json bitcoin рост bitcoin truffle ethereum bitcoin mail bitcoin bounty asics bitcoin bitcoin kurs bitcoin x2
ethereum info видеокарты bitcoin planet bitcoin 100 bitcoin ethereum stats bitcoin wm prune bitcoin цена ethereum bitcoin ruble
отзыв bitcoin валюта ethereum email bitcoin forex bitcoin bitcoin клиент json bitcoin bitcoin падение ethereum кошельки ethereum russia fun bitcoin bag bitcoin конвертер ethereum avto bitcoin алгоритм monero
ethereum pools 50 bitcoin tether wifi bitcoin money торрент bitcoin
group bitcoin
iota cryptocurrency blocks bitcoin bitcoin japan bitcoin koshelek bitcoin suisse lootool bitcoin new cryptocurrency tether майнинг casascius bitcoin ecopayz bitcoin блог bitcoin 100 bitcoin bitcoin bow
apk tether эмиссия ethereum bitcoin основы bitcoin mine bitcoin debian bitcoin expanse maining bitcoin bitcoin эфир bitcoin халява coindesk bitcoin 1000 bitcoin игра ethereum bitcoin green bitcoin world мерчант bitcoin курсы bitcoin
